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Bass-Reflex or Phase-Inversion Enclosures
Bass-reflex enclosures (or phase-inversion enclosures, as they are more correctly referred to) offer the best approach to utilizing the energy generated by the back radiation from the cone speaker. If the cone is not baffled, the back radiation interferes with the front radiation. Infinite baffles ensure that the back radiation never meets the front radiation in a detrimental manner.
BASS REFLEX DEFINED
The phase-inversion enclosure allows the back radiation to be usefully added to the output of the front radiation. This improves the low-frequency response of the system. The mechanics of this process may be described as follows: The entrapped air volume of the enclosure is used as an extension of the cone to move a volume of entrapped air in a port or opening approximately equal to the area of the air displaced by the front of the cone.
The air volume in the enclosure acts as a "spring" coupling the back of the cone to the "cone" of air entrapped in the port area. This "spring" has the effect of delaying the transfer of the cone movement to the volume of entrapped air in the port area. This
53
time delay brings the two radiations (from the cone and from the port) from an out-of-phase, or opposed, condition into an in-phase condition at the necessary low frequency.
One popular misconception regarding phase inverters is that as the frequency decreases, the front radiation from the cone becomes less, and all the acoustic power heard emerges from the port. Actu�ally, the very best that can ever be achieved would be approximately equal outputs from the port area and from the front of the cone, inasmuch as radiations from the port are directly related to the movement of the cone. One cannot get "something for nothing." As a matter of fact, there is slightly less acoustical power from the port area as compared to the front of the cone because some energy is lost via absorption inside the enclosure.
Fig. 4-1 illustrates the main features of a phase-inversion en closure. Dimensions A X B X C (in inches) = the volume of the en�closure in cubic inches. For conversion to cubic feet divide cubic inches by 1728 (=123). D is the speaker mounting opening, which is equal to the diameter of the surround compliance of the driver. E X F is the port area; E X F X G is the port volume.
With this type of enclosure, three main variables are adjusted to achieve increased low-frequency response: (1) enclosure volume can be altered, (2) port area and volume can be scaled up and down, and (3) the free-air resonance of the speaker cone may be of differ�ent values for various sizes of cones and types of drivers.
54
Table 2-1 in Chapter 2 states the rated diameter and effective piston area of the most commonly used sizes of woofers (low-frequency speakers). It is important to know the effective piston area of the cone used because, ideally, the port should be the same area. If the port is made larger than the cone area, there is danger that the speaker is no longer baffled. At this point the port becomes large enough to allow interfering back radiations to mingle with
front radiations as the frequency increases above resonance. If the port is made smaller than the cone area, then the port radia�tions cannot equal the output of the front radiations from the cone. When the cone area and the port area are equal, they can generate approximately equal acoustical energy, which results in almost double the output that would be expected from the same driver in an infinite baffle at the same low frequency.
55
MEASURING THE CONE RESONANCE
The speaker chosen must be measured to find its free-air reso�nance. The only tools needed are an inexpensive audio oscillator, a voltmeter, and a resistor having a resistance value between ten and 50 times the value of the rated impedance of the speaker (see Fig. 4-2).
56
The speaker, without an enclosure, should be held up in the air, free of obstructions and possible reflections. As the oscillator is gradually adjusted to a lower frequency, the voltmeter reading will increase as resonance is approached. The peak reading ob�tainable on the voltmeter is the point of resonance. The frequency on the dial of the oscillator at this reading is the resonant frequency.
The lower the free-air resonance of the speaker, the larger the enclosure will have to be to exhibit the same resonance if a port area equal to the cone area is also achieved. Actually, as the free-air resonance is approached, the electrical phenomenon that causes the voltage rise in the voltmeter is the increasing impedance (com�plex) of the speaker as the frequency is lowered (see Fig. 4-3).
If the speaker is rated at 16 ohms and matched to an amplifier of the same nominal rating, then, "as the impedance grows, the wattage goes." This is Ohm's law operating. As the "load" imped�ance increases, less power is drawn from the amplifier due to mismatch.
Knowing the free-air cone resonance of the speaker (see Fig. 4-4) enables one to find the volume of the enclosure that will resonate
57
ENCLOSURE SIZE
The size of the enclosure can be varied over a wide range; how�ever, there is always an optimum size for any speaker. The formula, V = 2000R, rather accurately describes the differences in size of enclosure for speakers with free-air resonances around 60 Hz, where V is the volume of enclosure in cubic inches and R is the radius of effective piston area of the cone.
Assuming a constant port area for a given enclosure, as the size is reduced to one-fourth of its original volume, the resonance of the enclosure raises one octave; e.g., if it had been 60 Hz, raising it one octave would double the frequency and it would then be resonant at 120 Hz. Conversely, if the volume of the cabinet is in�creased by four times, then the resonance of the enclosure lowers by one octave; e.g., again, if originally 60 Hz it would now be one-half, or 30 Hz.
58
If it becomes necessary to sacrifice some bass efficiency (thereby reducing the size of the cabinet) to better ajust to demands of decor, the formula to use is
R= V2/V1
where ,
R=ratio of port area change .
V1=volume of enclosure with port area equal to cone area.
V2=desired volume of the smaller enclosure,
then (R*R)P=new port area for smaller enclosure.
If the enclosure were 10 cubic feet with a 12-inch speaker (free-air cone resonance 50 Hz) and a port area of 78 square inches, to reduce the enclosure to five cubic feet, calculate:

R = 5 cu ft/10cu ft= 0.5

R2P = (0.5)2 x 78 = 0.25 x 78 = 19.5 sq in

While this reduced the size of the enclosure and the "tuning" re�mained at the same frequency, it was at the expense of bass output. There is a loss of bass output due to the greatly reduced port area
59
compared to cone area, as well as increased low-frequency dis�tortion caused by the increased movement of the cone as a result of the decreased enclosure loading.
PORT SIZE
The resonance of the enclosure can be altered by still another method. If, for a given volume of enclosure, the port is reduced to one-fourth its original area, the resonance of the enclosure lowers by one octave; e.g., if originally 60 Hz, it now becomes 30 Hz. If the area of the port is increased to four times its original area, the
resonance of the enclosure raises by one octave; e.g., if originally 60 Hz, it now becomes 120 Hz. From these interrelations it is ap�parent that for a given free-air cone resonance:
1. A small enclosure requires a small port area.
2. A large enclosure requires a large port area.
As mentioned earlier, the ideal port area should equal the cone area of the speaker. The preceding relation shows how a smaller than optimum port area can be utilized in Border to allow reduction in the size of the enclosure. On the other hand, even if size were of no consequence, designing the port area larger than the speaker-
62
cone area only results in unbaffling the woofer. The effect of a port area larger than the cone area is most noticeable at frequencies other than the low-frequency resonance. This is often overlooked even by speaker system manufacturers.
TUNING THE PORT
After design work is finished and the enclosure is constructed, it is often the practice to cut the port area larger than the design calls for. Then, by means of a board moved across the port open�ing, a final careful "tuning" can be accomplished.
Using the same test circuit shown in Fig. 4-2, gradually "sweep" the oscillator across the lower frequencies until two peaks are found on the voltmeter. Keep changing the port area with the sliding board, while sweeping the low frequencies, until the two peaks previously found are equal in amplitude. The enclosure is now tuned, and proof of its correct adjustment is that the dip between the two peaks is now at the same frequency as the free-air cone resonance of the driver.
When the enclosure is tuned to the same frequency as the free-air cone resonance of the speaker, the impedance of the speaker
64
mounted in the enclosure looks like Curve B in Fig. 4-3. Note that one high resonance peak has been traded for two smaller ones. The higher-frequency peak is essentially of useful phase, and the lower frequency one is of detrimental phase. However, the lower one is at a frequency so low as to be of no consequence.
Curve D in Fig. 4-3 shows the frequency response (idealized) of a driver and ported enclosure associated with the impedance Curve B. Curve C is for the same driver mounted in an infinite baffle.
One further improvement results from deliberately raising the resonant frequency of the enclosure to a point higher than the free-air cone resonance of the speaker. If the driver has a free-air cone resonance of 30 Hz, the enclosure resonance is raised to
45 Hz. The resonance of the speaker in the enclosure now looks like Curve B in Fig. 4-5. The low-frequency peak (18 Hz) is much larger, but at this low frequency, the peak can have no effect on the performance of the system. Now the high-frequency peak is quite small and the bass response is smooth and efficient all the way to the cutoff
65

point. (See Curve D, Fig. 4-5.) This means that the speaker system absorbs more energy from the amplifier with the port tuned to a higher frequency; and as a result, a better, smoother, and more solid bass response is obtained.
Still another bonus is improved transient response due to better electrical damping in the all-important region of cutoff to 100 Hz.
CONSTRUCTION PLANS
In a number of the construction drawings that appear in this chapter, the port has been cut much larger than normally required. This is to permit the high-frequency horn and driver to be mounted within the opening. The difference between the large port area and the space the horn occupies is the actual port size. Therefore, it is this differential area that is considered as the actual port. The result is a port of the correct area surrounding the high-frequency horn (see Fig. 4-6).
The accompanying photographs and construction drawings are of thoroughly tested and proven bass-reflex enclosures. Careful ad�herence to the dimensions and details given will result in highly satisfactory performance (see Figs. 4-7 through 4-19).
70
DUCTED-PORT PHASE INVERTERS
The conventional bass-reflex enclosure can be reduced in size by almost 50 percent, according to the designers of the ducted-port enclosures. The formula (theoretical) that governs bass-reflex calculations is:
74
Fc=K/sqr(LC)
where,
Fc = the low-frequency sesonant point, K = all the lumped constants, L = mass of air in the port,
C = the compliance (springiness) of the entrapped air in the enclosure.
Without going into a great deal of detail (because the complex nature of K does not allow a simple value to be given to it), it can be seen that an increase in the magnitude of L allows a decrease in the magnitude of C.
This means that through the use of a duct (illustrated in Fig. 4-20) the port volume can be substantially increased.
In addition to the increased port volume it also provides better baffling isolation to higher frequencies which do not like to turn corners. Because of the very complex nature of K in the equation, plotted charts are used to calculate dimensions for standard bass-reflex enclosures.
DESIGNING A DUCTED-PORT ENCLOSURE
James F. Novak, senior engineer, Jensen Mfg. Div., The Muter Company, has researched this subject thoroughly. The following material is reprinted with his permission.*
Optimum Enclosure Size
"A careful study of bass-reflex operation from a theoretical stand�point reveals a complexity far greater than the extremely simple construction would indicate. A number of generally unknown facts come to light concerning low-frequency extension and optimum transient response.
"1. A bass-reflex enclosure can be too large. After a certain maxi�mum volume is reached, further volume increases result in "boomy" bass rather than an appreciable extension of low-frequency response. This is particularly true when a speaker with a small magnet is used. It is best to use a completely closed cabinet in this case.
"2. A bass-reflex enclosure can also be too small. A common as�sumption is that the enclosure can be made much smaller by using a duct behind the port. While the use of a duct allows one to tune the enclosure to very low frequencies when volumes are small, it is the ratio of enclosure air stiffness to speaker stiffness that deter-
* Reprinted in part from January, 1966, issue of Electronics World.
75
mines the low-frequency cut-off. As the enclosure volume is made smaller, the enclosure stiffness increases and so does the cut-off frequency. This will remain true regardless of how the enclosure is tuned. A false "boomy" bass will generally result and the en�closure may as well be left closed. In some cases a better sounding bass will result if the back of the speaker enclosure is removed.
"3. Only one condition of cabinet tuning and damping will result in optimum transient response, i.e., freedom from hangover or boom. Because a speaker in a bass-reflex forms a closely coupled system of two tuned circuits, the system will tend to decay with two fre�quencies. The achievement of optimum transient response demands that the system decay with one frequency and with a specified time constant. In order to make the system decay in one frequency, the enclosure volume and port combination must be tuned to the free-air resonance of the speaker. A specified decay can be achieved by adding acoustic resistance, in the form of damping material, to the enclosure. The proper amount of damping material can be de�termined by means of a test method described later.
"A nagging question in the design stage of any enclosure of this type is "How large shall it be?" It was pointed out earlier that the enclosure can be too large or too small for proper bass-reflex action. This implies that an optimum volume exists and indeed it does. This optimum volume does not depend upon the size of the speaker nor its resonant frequency per se but rather on the ratio of enclosure air stiffness to the speaker cone suspension stiffness. This optimum ratio is 1.44 or, looking at it another way, the speaker resonant frequency in the enclosure before porting should be 1.56 times the free-air resonance of the speaker. This size enclosure, when prop�erly tuned, yields at the same time the most extended low-frequency response and a transient response with subjectively unnoticeable hangover, assuming sufficient damping exists. Compared to the en�tirely closed cabinet, the half-power point (3 db down) occurs at 0.7 times the closed cabinet speaker resonance for an extension of one-half octave.
Designing the Enclosure
"In order to proceed with the actual design work, it is necessary to know the stiffness of the cone suspension. Since speaker manu�facturers are notorious for not having this information readily available, it is necessary to derive this by measuring the speaker resonance in free air and in a "standard volume." A properly cali�brated audio oscillator, a simple a.c. vacuum-tube voltmeter, and a 100- to 1000-ohm resistor are required. Although this value is not at all critical, the higher values will give more sharply defined read�ings. Use the largest value consistent with the oscillator output volt-
76
age and voltmeter sensitivity. Fig. 4-21A shows how these elements are connected.
"The "standard volume" is nothing more than a small plywood box of known volume. Fig. 4-22 shows the constructional details of boxes for 8-inch, 12-inch, and 15-inch speakers. Although a single volume could have been used for all loudspeaker sizes, three sepa�rate volumes were chosen in the interest of economy. This box must be thoroughly sealed with caulking compound or putty to prevent leaks. Note: All measurements will be made with the speaker mounted on the outside of the box. All six sides should, therefore, be permanently assembled.
"The first step after selecting a loudspeaker and constructing the appropriate "standard volume" is to measure resonant frequencies. Hook up the unbaffled speaker as shown in Fig. 4-21A. The speaker should be held in the air away from any large objects and the audio
77
oscillator slowly swept through the low-frequency end of the audio range so that it passes through the speaker's resonant frequency. The voltmeter connected across the voice coil terminals will show a large rise in voltage at this frequency. The frequency correspond�ing to maximum voltmeter reading is the resonant frequency of the speaker.
"After noting the free-air resonant frequency, place the speaker face down over the hole in the "standard box." A slight amount of hand pressure should be applied to the rear of the speaker to help get a good seal between speaker gasket and the box. The speaker resonant frequency is again determined as before. The resonant fre�quency determined this time will be higher than the free-air reso�nance. It is quite possible for this frequency to be two to four times the free-air resonance.
"The proper nomograms of Figs. 4-23, 4-24, or 4-25 can now be used to determine the proper enclosure volume. The following ex�ample will clarify the technique.
"Assume an enclosure is to be built for a 12-inch loudspeaker with the following resonant frequencies: free-air resonant frequency, 62; resonant frequency in "standard box," 121 cps.
78
"Using the nomogram of Fig. 4-24, draw a straight line between Point A, the speaker free-air resonance and Point B, the speaker resonance with the "standard box." From the intersection of this line and the reference line, Point C, draw another straight line through the construction point until it intersects with the optimum-volume line. The number read (3000 cubic inches) is the proper volume for this loudspeaker.
"Unless the reader has reasons for making the enclosure con�form to a special shape, the nomogram of Fig. 4-26 can be used for obtaining the proper dimensions for any desired volume. The resulting shape is based on industrial design philosophy that no rectangle will be interesting as an abstract shape until its width equals at least the diagonal of the square on which it is based. The width is, therefore, 1.414 times the height and the height is 1.414 times the depth. Note: The dimensions obtained from the nomogram are inside dimensions and must have the material thickness added to them.
"The proper method of using this nomogram is to draw a straight
line between the desired volume on the two outside volume scalesis
79
and obtain the dimensions from the intersection of this line with the three inner scales. The dimensions obtained should be rounded off to convenient numbers such as height (H) = 14 , width (W) = 20 , and depth (D) = 10 , for the example cited. The result�ing volume will be well within the limits of accuracy required.
"The speaker cut-out should be placed toward one end of the enclosure. The table below lists proper size cutouts for 8-, 12-, and 15-inch loudspeakers.
Speaker Size Baffle Cut-Out
8-inch 6 " diameter
12-inch 10 " diameter
15-inch 13 " diameter
Tuning &� Damping
"The enclosure must now be tuned to the free-air resonant fre�quency of the speaker. The charts of Figs. 4-27, 4-28, and 4-29 are used for this purpose. They are based on ducts (made of heavy cardboard tubes) which are available for $0.50 each from the Tech-
80

nical Service Department, Jensen Mfg. Div. of the Muter Company, 6601 S. Laramie Ave., Chicago, Illinois, 60638. [Heavy cardboard mailing tubes, or drawing or blueprint-carrying tubes, available in stationery or drafting stores, may be used.�Ed.] The proper tube to use will be the largest diameter (inside) which gives a tube length of at least 1% inches less than the inside depth of the enclosure. In
the example chosen above, the duct is 4 " i.d. and has a length from the front panel of 3". (Note: The photos shown at the beginning of this article were taken before the duct was cut to proper length.) "The speaker and tube should now be installed in the enclosure with the tube being somewhere near the speaker. Although the enclosure volume and tuning are now correct, the system may not
81
be free from hangover or boom. The usual method of determining if adequate damping exists by measuring the height of the imped�ance peaks with the circuit of Fig. 4-21A can often be misleading. A speaker system that appears underdamped with this measure�ment may be adequately damped when operated with a high-fidelity amplifier. The reason is that the circuit of Fig. 4-21A does not include damping contributed by the amplifier which can be appreciable. For example, an amplifier with a damping factor of 20 appears as a 0.4-ohm resistor in shunt across the voice-coil terminals of an 8-ohm speaker. Many of the transistor amplifiers have damping factors of 50 and greater. The shunt resistance will be less than 0.2 ohm in these cases.
"Damping should be investigated with the circuit of Fig. 4-21B. The value of R can be determined if the amplifier damping factor
83
and speaker impedance are known from: R = speaker impedance/ amplifier damping factor.
"If the amplifier damping factor is not known, a 1/2-ohm resistor may be used. The battery can be an ordinary flashlight type while the switch can be a push-button or toggle type.
"The circuit of Fig. 4-21B is connected to the voice coil of the loudspeaker which is now installed in the tuned enclosure. The switch is operated between its two positions and the resulting sound produced by the speaker is observed. If the sound is a distinct "click" with no low-frequency boom or "bong" in both positions, the damping is adequate. Chances are, however, that the "click" will be accompanied by some boom and additional damping in the form of acoustic resistance will have to be added.
"The author prefers not to place damping material in the port. Somewhat better over-all results are usually obtained by placing it directly behind the speaker where it can then affect both "tuned circuits." Fig. 4-30 shows the method used. Generally a 1- to 2-inch thickness of lightweight Fiberglas (1/2-lbs. density) stapled around the speaker so that the entire speaker is covered will produce a boom-free click."
SUMMARY
To this point we have discussed how to maximize the radiations from the front and the rear of the cone speaker. Simple box con�struction has characterized the enclosures discussed, and, in each case, home construction has been feasible. Now, more complex solutions to the problems of converting mechanical motion to acous�tical energy with far greater efficiency will be discussed. To accom�plish this we now turn to the horn projector.
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